General Strain Theory by definition is a logically sound theory, as it is not tautological, and can clearly be falsified. This book provides a useful summary of GST, although it no longer reflects the latest developments in the formulation or testing of the theory. The emotion of anger plays a special role in GST because it is believed to be especially conducive to crime and violence. Relative to adults, they have limited life experience to draw upon, which results in coping skills that are not fully developed. Durkheim argued that during rapid changes that take place in society, norms will breakdown. Since its inception, the theory has received a considerable amount of attention from researchers, has enjoyed a fair amount of empirical support, and has been credited with helping to revitalize the strain theory tradition. As predicted by GST, a number of studies indicate that the relationship between strain and offending is partly mediated by anger, and this is especially true of studies that focus on violent behavior (e.g., Aseltine, Gore, & Gordon, 2000; Agnew, 1985; Brezina, 1998; Broidy, 2001; Hay & Evans, 2006; Jang & Johnson, 2003; Mazerolle & Piquero, 1997, 1998; Mazerolle, Piquero, & Capowich, 2003; Moon et al., 2009). At the same time, adolescents frequently encounter opportunities for delinquent coping, such as exposure to delinquent peers. Likewise, a study by Hoffmann and Ireland (2004) produced mixed results regarding the impact of school-context variables on delinquency. All strain theories acknowledge that only a minority of strained individuals turn to crime. They also find that the co-occurrence of anger and depression is more common among females. Put a "charge" into people, motivate . General strain theory (GST) provides a unique explanation of crime and delinquency. At least some of the strains listed in the preceding paragraph have been the focus of other criminological theories because they are thought to be associated with low social control (e.g., negative school experiences) or the social learning of crime (e.g., exposure to abuse or harsh physical punishment). The results of study were mixed, as this composite measure conditioned the impact of certain strains on delinquency but not others. Instead, an attempt is made to highlight areas of research that speak to the overall validity of GST, that point to important problems or issues in the specification of the theory, or that suggest new directions for the future development of the theory. According to GST, however, the primary reason these strains are related to crime and delinquency is because they increase the likelihood that individuals will experience negative emotions, such as anger, resentment, anxiety, and depression. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Mertons explanation of crime emphasized the utilitarian, goal-oriented nature of deviant adaptations. Free resources to assist you with your university studies! Registered office: Creative Tower, Fujairah, PO Box 4422, UAE. Whereas Broidy and Agnew (1997) predicted that depression mitigates the criminogenic effect of anger, thereby suppressing female delinquency, DeCoster and Zito (2010) find no such mitigating effect. General strain theory focuses on negative relationships with others and suggest that the resulting anger and frustration may lead to juvenile delinquency. Here you can choose which regional hub you wish to view, providing you with the most relevant information we have for your specific region. Agnew describes that by removing a positively valued stimuli it has the potential to cause strain. In particular, criminal coping is said to be most likely when highly criminogenic strains are experienced by individuals who have a strong overall propensity to offend and who are in circumstances or situations in which the opportunities for legal coping are limited (Agnew, 2013). To address this possible association, five hypotheses were tested to examine if different types of strain and stress exposure influence delinquent coping and if these relationships are conditioned by race These findings support previous theoretical arguments that linked angry arousal to cognitive processes that promote aggression. Other theorists emphasize the role of socialization, arguing that males are more likely to engage in crime because they have internalized masculine values that are conducive to crime and violence, such as competition and aggressiveness (Agnew & Brezina, 2015). Earlier versions of strain theory have been criticized for focusing on a narrow range of possible strains, for their inability to explain why only some strained individuals resort to crime or delinquency, and for limited empirical support. They try to increase the likelihood that youth . Robert Merton (1938) offered the first modern version of strain theory, which attempted to explain social class differences in offending. In other neighborhoods, strained youth specialize in violent behavior or in money-oriented crimes. Only a handful of studies have tested the macro-level implications of GST, with mixed results. In particular, rates of poverty and male joblessness predicted delinquent behavior in urban communities. Agnew, Robert ( 1992) 'Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency', Criminology 30 (1): 47-87. Messer and Rosenfeld (1994) state that the heavy emphasis on American Dream encourages criminal impulses while creating a weak normative environment. The findings of the study suggest that the main direction of the casual relationship flows from strain to delinquency. 2 What are the limitations of Mertons strain theory? As a result, compared to non-aggressive individuals, aggressive individuals are more likely to respond to various situations with anger and delinquent coping. Agnew (1992:51) describes multiple types of strain that fall under the category of failing to achieve positively valued goals. For example, being bullied by peers on a frequent basis is a type of strain that is expected to have a relatively strong relationship to delinquency. Here you can choose which regional hub you wish to view, providing you with the most relevant information we have for your specific region. In another early test of GST, Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) used data from the National Youth Survey to examine the effect of strain on a measure of general delinquency. The experience of chronic or repeated strain, in particular, may weaken relationships with conventional others and therefore result in low social control. The strain theories of Merton, Cohen, and Cloward and Ohlin were influential throughout much of the 20th century and helped to inspire antipoverty efforts. If your specific country is not listed, please select the UK version of the site, as this is best suited to international visitors. Whether or not a given event or circumstance is subjectively defined as adverse is dependent on the meaning the individual attaches to it (Polizzi, 2011). No plagiarism, guaranteed! Based on another longitudinal sample of adolescents, Eitle (2010) finds that increases in strain over time are associated with an increase in future offending, while decreases in strain promote desistance from crime. A particular adverse event may cause intense distress for some individuals but not others, depending on their beliefs, values, life situations, and the techniques at their disposal for minimizing the emotional or cognitive significance of the event (see Leban, Cardwell, Copes, & Brezina, 2016). At the same time, however, opportunities for achieving monetary success are distributed unevenly in society. A study by Ganem (2010) highlights the potential complexity of the linkage between strain and offending, indicating that different types of strain may produce different types of negative emotions. Overhaul of Merton's Strain Theory. What is the assumption of strain theories? We've received widespread press coverage since 2003, Your UKEssays purchase is secure and we're rated 4.4/5 on reviews.co.uk. Limited evidence suggests that situation-based and trait-based emotions may operate differently, with situation-based emotions playing a larger role in mediating the relationship between recent strains and offending (Mazerolle, Piquero, & Capowich, 2003; Moon et al., 2009). For instance, it was argued that individuals experience strain when they aspire to achieve monetary success but do not expect to attain it, because they perceive the goal of success to be out of reach. They generally have less control over their lives, having difficulty removing themselves from adverse environments, and have fewer opportunities for legal coping, given poor schools and limited job opportunities. But males are more likely to experience those particular types of strain that are strongly related to crime and delinquency, such as harsh parental discipline, negative school experiences, criminal victimization, and homelessness. It may also foster beliefs favorable to crime (e.g., the belief that crime is justified), increase the appeal of delinquent peer groups (such groups may be seen as a solution to strain), and contribute to certain traits that are conducive to crime, such as negative emotionality and low self-control (Agnew, 2006; Agnew, Brezina, Wright, & Cullen, 2002). Where most other strain theories, such as Mertons, put a heavy focus on accumulation of wealth, a structural cultural goal, Agnew tends to focus on goals that cause strain other than wealth accumulation. Too deterministic- a lot of working class people experience crime but not all deviate. These chronic, high-rate offenders typically exhibit highly aggressive behavior as young children, engage in high levels of delinquency during adolescence, and persist in serious offending as they grow older (Moffitt, 1993). It includes, for example, stressors that could be experienced by both lower-class and middle-class individuals. Slocum (2010) examines longitudinal data on substance use and finds partial support for the GST explanation of continuity and change. This type of strain involves the loss of something valued and encompasses a wide range of undesirable events or experiences, such as the theft of valued property, the loss of a romantic relationship, or the withdrawal of parental love. Yet Agnew (1999) argues that processes related to social psychological strain can be used to explain patterns of crime appearing at the level of schools, neighborhoods, and larger communities. . How does the strain theory explain crime? The effects of various socioenvironmental strains on suicidal ideation and suicidal attempt, including mediating effects of "negative affective states," are investigated. Also, while early tests of GST typically examined the relationship between strain and general delinquency, the theory has since been applied to a variety of specific deviant behaviors. [7] Agnew's three categories of strain [ edit] The present study drew on Agnew's General Strain Theory (GST) to examine the relationship between strain, race, and delinquent behavior. 9 Why was the strain theory important in the 1940s? Weaknesses One weakness of the strain theory is that it does only focus on the middle and lower classes of society. Although the theory has been examined by many and enjoys empirical support, some limitations of previous studies need to be addressed. In comparison to objective measures of strain, Froggio and Agnew (2007) find that subjective measures of strain are more strongly related to offending. Merton developed five modes of adaptation to cultural strain: Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, and Rebellion. The data indicate that children who obtain high scores on a combined measure of negative emotionality/low constraint tend to report elevated levels of illicit drug use during adolescence and adulthood, controlling for other relevant variables. At the same time, certain strainsespecially chronic strains experienced in early childhoodmay promote the trait of aggressiveness, leading individuals to possess an angry and irritable temperament that transcends particular situations (Agnew, 1997). What are the five components of Robert Mertons strain theory? Certain data indicate that the subjective experience of strain is an important consideration in understanding the relationship between strain and offending, but studies in this area have produced mixed results. In another multilevel study of problem behavior in schools, de Beeck, Pauwels, and Put (2012) find that a school-level measure of strain, based on negative future prospects, predicts violence but not other delinquencies. Many previous studies rely heavily on samples from Western countries, mostly the United States; thus, possible cultural influences are ignored. At the same time, inner-city youth often encounter numerous opportunities for criminal coping, such as gang membership and drug selling (Brezina & Agnew, 2013). They do so by creating their own alternative status system, which emphasizes goals they can readily achieve, such as toughness and fighting prowess. Peoples methods of coping with stress can take two general avenues, the first avenue being the use of legitimate means of achieving goals or coping with stress, such as seeking professional help, and the second being illegitimate means, for example, bullying kids at school because of frustrations of not fitting in. Agnew, Robert ( 2001) 'Building on the Foundation of General Strain Theory: Specifying the Types of Strain Most Likely to Lead to Crime and Delinquency' , Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 38 (4 . Are people more likely to commit crime when stressed? To place these limitations into context one needs only draw on the literature documenting the characteristics of a "good" or "effective" theory. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! To cope with this frustration, status-frustrated boys tend to band together and rebel against middle-class expectations. Abstract. Moreover, many studiesespecially those focusing on aggressionfind that the effect of strain is partly mediated by anger. For instance, different types of strain may have distinct emotional consequences, leading to distinct behavior outcomes (Ganem, 2010). (Note: empirical tests of GST often measure strain in terms of stressful life events, even though many such events would not be expected to have a strong relationship to offending.). According to recent stressor inventories, hundreds of distinct strains fit into GST's key strain categories. In addition, Agnew (2006) published Pressured into Crime: An Overview of General Strain Theory. Under certain conditions, however, criminal or delinquent responses to strain are more likely to occur. They examine various individual strains and conclude that some strains affect males and females differently (see also Hay, 2003; Jang, 2007). Too much emphasis is placed on stats- overrepresentation of the lower classes. A test of general strain theory. Examples of interventions that may have potential in this area include parenting and anger-management programs (for overviews, see Agnew, 1995b, 2006). For this reason, unfulfilled aspirations may not be a key source of strain or frustration. This has led a number of researchers to call for either the abandonment or revision of strain . It should be noted, however, that all three studies were based on samples of students in middle school. GST has been partly successful in overcoming these limitations. Often times anger leads an individual to seek revenge and is also a strong motivator for action. Much of the test results conducted between 1992 and 2003 confirms that correlation exists between stressful events, strain induced anger, and criminal activity. A variety of explanations have been offered to account for this gender gap in offending. However, Froggio (2007) argues that despite evidence of correlation between delinquency and assumptions of General Strain Theory, the correlation is not clear cut in that many of the surveys conducted were limited. Furthermore, the GST's broad scope makes document forgery impossible. To make strain theory more applicable to juvenile delinquency, Cohen offered a revised version of the theory, which placed less emphasis on monetary success. Based on a national sample of adolescents, Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) find that the effect of strain on delinquency is partly mediated by social control and association with delinquent peers. The GST strains are not included in any of these inventories. Unstable Cycloalkanes originate due to divergences from the general tetrahedral angles. Over the years of its development, strain theorists have attempted to broaden the initial scope of this perspective. (Sub)cultural theories (Cohen 1955;Ogbu 1978;Willis 1977), on. Moreover, in urban communities with high rates of male joblessness, the effect of individual-level stress on delinquency was magnified. Continuing Relevance. The first major type of strain involves the inability of individuals to achieve their goals, or goal blockage. Although classic strain theories also focused on goal blockage, they tended to focus on a single type of goal blockage; namely, a disjunction between aspirations and expectations. Other school-context variables (such as mean level of negative affect) exhibit little or no relationship to problem behavior. These include strains that are high in magnitude (severe, frequent, of long duration, or involving matters of high importance to the individual), are seen as unjust and associated with low social control, and they can be readily resolved through crime. Ignores ruling class power to create and enforce laws to prevent the deviant adaptations (innovations,ritualism,retreatism and rebellion) Takes official statistics at face value. This variation was said to be function of criminal opportunity. One such theory, Agnew's General Strain Theory (GST), was derived from classic strain theory ideas developed from such criminologists as Merton . The results are generally supportive of GST. In short, using the above sources of strain, it is clear that negative relationships with other have potential to cause strain in an individual and in turn result in negative emotions. Other studies, however, fail to observe the predicted conditioning effects (e.g., Hoffmann & Miller, 1998; Mazerolle & Piquero, 1997; for an overview, see, Agnew, 2006). In particular, they often lack coping resources that are available to those in wealthier communities, such as money, power, and conventional social support. General strain theorists recognize these factors, but they offer two additional reasons for the gender gap in crime and delinquency (Broidy & Agnew, 1997). GST represents a revision and extension of prior strain theories, including the classic strain theories of Merton (1938), Cohen (1955), and Cloward and Ohlin (1960). Such traits are said to interfere with the development of strong attachments to conventional others and other stakes in conformity. Lin and Mieczkowski (2011) constructed a composite measure to index the overall standing of young people on various conditioning factors, including moral beliefs, delinquent peer associations, self-control, and self-esteem. From simple essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your needs. Under this broad definition, GST delineates three major types of strain. According to Agnew (2001) studies show that delinquency peaks when desires, goals, and the expectation of achieving the desires or goals are low, and delinquency is lowest when desires, goals and the expectation of accomplishing the goals are high(Agnew 2001:). These negative emotions, in turn, are said to create pressures for corrective action, with crime or delinquency being one possible response. All produce negative emotional states/feelings. The Essay Writing ExpertsUK Essay Experts. Strain may lead to other negative emotions, foster beliefs favorable to crime, reduce social control, and increase attraction to delinquent peers. General Strain Theory has a greater theoretical sophistication than its traditional counterpart, not only in terms of specifying different types of strain but, most importantly, in recognizing the relationship between the individual and society is more-complex than that suggested by writers like Merton. Although Broidy (2001) suggests that the non random sample is not ideal, being neither representative of all college students nor representative to the population as a whole is useful for the purpose of this test. Thus any deviation from this value would result in an internal strain in the molecule. A majority of life circumstances can lead individuals to create a crime from their negative emotions, such as frustration and anger. It builds and extends from the fraud triangle theory. It is important to explain this pattern of offending, as such offenders commit a disproportionate share of serious crime. In hindsight, these mixed results may not be surprising. Jennings and colleagues (2009) report similar results based on a study of Mexican American adolescents. To fully understand GST, it is helpful to review the multiple publications that span the development and growth of the theory. Agnew cites that if in fact the previous theories were to be true, it would be expected that crime would occur when there would be there a strong desire for monetary success and a low expectation of fulfilling that desire (Agnew 1985). For example, females are subject to higher levels of parental supervision, have higher levels of commitment to family and school, and are less likely to associate with delinquent peers. Females still get angry but may also have a high propensity to experience the emotions of depression and anxiety simultaneously. The second phase of the social structure defines how society is to go about achieving these goals, by placing regulations and creating laws (Merton 1938: 673). The full potential of these revisions has yet to evaluated, as few studies have fully incorporated the recommended specifications. General strain theory (GST) provides a unique explanation of crime and delinquency. GST argues that strain occurs when others (1) prevent or threaten to prevent you from achieving positively valued goals, (2) remove or threaten to remove positively valued stimuli that you possess, or (3) present or threaten to present you with . By the 1970s, however, strain theory began to fall out of favor. Mertons theory focuses on the individual but some crime is a collective action. 6 How does the strain theory explain crime? Certain categories of youth may lack conventional sources of social support, especially young people who have poor relationships with their parents and teachers. To illustrate, these conditions are often faced by adolescents, which may help to explain why adolescents exhibit high rates of offending relative to other age groups in the population (Agnew & Brezina, 2015). Further, individuals who possess this trait are more likely than others to respond to strain with depression and substance use. A precursor to GST was published by Agnew (1985) under the title, A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency, in which strain was conceptualized as the blockage of pain-avoidance behavior. Equalizing opportunities could include paying females equal wages, or provide more intensive education in low income areas, as well as making it easier for those in lower socioeconomic classes to attend college. Can GST explain why some communities (or other macro-level social units) have high rates of problem behavior? Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. My 1985 article presented a revised strain theory, which stated that delinquency results from the blockage of pain-avoidance behavior as well as the blockage of goal-seeking behavior. Emile Durkheim developed the first modern strain theory of crime and deviance, but Mertons classic strain theory and its offshoots came to dominate criminology during the middle part of the 20th century. In particular, strain appears to reduce social control and increase involvement with delinquent peers, thereby resulting in elevated rates of offending (see also Brezina, 1998). Jang and Rhodes (2012), however, find that the effects of strain are partly mediated by social bonds and self-control, but not delinquent peers. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Mertons strain theory? In contrast, based on a sample of students in middle school, De Coster and Zito (2010) find that males and females exhibit similar levels of anger, although females exhibit higher levels of depression (see also Kaufman, 2009). The fourth, is the polar opposite of the path of conformity such that a person who is retreatist will reject cultural goals and its institutionalized means, people that take this path are people who essentially are not part of society (Merton 1938: 674). As result, adolescents are more likely to respond to strain in an immature and ineffective manner. This source looks beyond simply failing to achieve a goal of monetary success or doing well in school (Agnew 1992:53). He referred to such deviance as innovation while identifying the other responses to strain as conformity, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Abstract. Design/methodology/approach - A survey was developed and administered to 114 . 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